The Impact of Confucianism on Creativity
Kyung Hee Kim
The University of Georgia
The Impact of Confucianism on Creativity
II. Creativity and Confucianism
1. Confucianism
20
2. Creativity and the Four Principles of Confucianism
1) Creativity and the first principle of Confucianism:
the Emphasis of Education 21
2) Creativity and the second principle of Confucianism:
the Family System 27
3) Creativity and the third principle of Confucianism:
the Hierarchical Social Relationships 28
4) Creativity and the fourth principle of Confucianism:
Benevolence 35
III. Future Research:
The Impact of Parents’ Confucian Ideas on their Child’s Creativity
30
References 31
I. The Concept of Creativity
Creativity is one of the most mysterious subjects in educational psychology, and creativity is one of the most important subjects not only in educational psychology but also in the entire educational field.
Western conception of creativity can be defined as the ability to produce work that is novel, original, or unexpected, and appropriate, useful, or adaptive concerning task constraints (Barron, 1988; Jackson & Messick, 1967; Lubart, 1994; MacKinnon, 1962; Ochse, 1990; Stein, 1953; Sternberg, 1988a; Sternberg & Lubart, 1991, 1995, 1996). Thus, an important feature of Western creativity is related to an observable product (Hughes & Drew, 1984). The Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking also one example that creativity is product-oriented, originality-based definition (Torrance, 1974).
In contrast to the Western conception of creativity, the Eastern perspective can be considered as less product-oriented. Instead, creativity is associated to a state of personal fulfillment, the expression of an inner essence of ultimate reality (Chu, 1970; Kuo, 1996; Mathur, 1982). Thus, an important feature of Eastern creativity is related to meditation because it helps one to see the true nature of the self or an object (Sarnoff & Cole, 1983). Therefore, it can be said that in the Eastern perspective, creativity involves the reinterpretation of traditional ideas, while in the Western perspective, creativity involves a break with tradition (Kristeller, 1983; recited in Lubart, 1999).
In this paper, I will concentrate my concern on the Western perspective of creativity, because there has been recognition of the connection between creativity, invention and national economic prosperity (Torrance, 1992), and because in my country, Korea, there is a talk about the need to nurture creativity in individuals that is important at this stage of the national development (Joo & Grow-Maienza, 1997). Torrance suggested that we have the challenge to create a national climate favorable to creativity and invention and to identify and develop creative and inventive talent for the future. Sternberg and Lubart (1999) also articulated that creativity is extremely important to nation’s economy because new products or services can create. Ultimately, my interest in the Western perspective of creativity is focused on the development of product-oriented creativity of the children in Korea.
Within the Western perspective of creativity, we can divide creativity into two halves, “Big C” and “Small c”. “Big C” refers to changes in the world like Torrance’s and Sternberg’s statements above or Einstein’s work. “Small c” is the creativity of everyday life of the average person, so we can think about both kinds of creativity. For example, according to Sternberg ‘s triarchic theory of intelligence (1988), creativity is anything that requires a person to generate something. It connotes that creativity is associated not only with “big C” but also with “small c” (Torff, 1999).
Common knowledge taught that creativity is a natural-born ability, but most research has concluded that it is a myth. Therefore, ultimately educators hope that study of creativity research can help all individuals optimize the development of their full potential (Torff, 1999).
1. Confucianism
Confucius was born in China 551 B.C (-479). His teachings are mainly concerned with the practical ethics of daily life without the addition of religious considerations (Chen & Chung, 1994). Confucianism is the major cultural influence in Chinese-influenced societies including China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. The philosophy still unites the Asian people today. The people have both been significantly influenced by the Confucian cultural tradition and its core values. They serve as the ethical and moral foundation for their business and social life, and their thinking style. Confucianism is based on authoritarian principles, and social stability is based on unequal relationships between people (Martinsons & Martinsons, 1996). In China, Confucianism has influenced on shaping their thinking and learning style. Although during the Cultural Revolution Confucian was severely criticized, Confucianism is still strong in Chinese society (Chan, 1999). Mao Zedong was among those who recognized that there were problems especially, related to an exclusive reliance on rote learning, and he commented that it was “stuffing students like Peking ducks” Many mainland Chinese political leadership felt that the school system should encourage students to think more flexibly that is what manpower development entailed (Martinsons & Martinsons, 1996). In addition, relentless technological progress and business globalization increase the requirement to be more creative and flexible in their thinking. They blame the educational system for discouraging original and creative thinking (Martinsons & Martinsons, 1996). Thus, although Confucianism has been severely criticized, it still notably influences those societies. Their values have been shaped and inculcated over centuries by a reverence for Confucianism. The themes (Sing Lau, 1996) guiding Chinese socialization are morality, filial piety, interpersonal harmony, collective decision making, self-fulfillment, good manners and the importance of education (Fielding, 1997).
In Korea, premodern society appeared even more Confucian and traditionally Chinese than China itself. Throughout Korean history, the Confucian legacy, the most striking and dominant cultural form, is deeply instilled in the consciousness of the Korean people, and the country has also reinforced this legacy through the educational system (Chung, 1994; Yi, 1993).
In short, the principles of Confucian teaching can be summarized as following: the emphasis on education; the family system; the hierarchical social relationships; and benevolence (Chen & Chung, 1994). I will prove based on the results of research on creativity how Confucianism can inhibit children’s creativity, using the ideas that are related to the four principles of Confucianism
2. The Four Principles of Confucianism and Creativity
1) Creativity and the First Principle of Confucianism: the Emphasis on Education
The first principle of Confucianism is the emphasis on education. The philosophy of Confucian education is based on the idea of "providing education for all people without discrimination'" and thoroughly prioritizes the teaching of ethics. School curriculum place importance on the subjects related to ethics, such as Ethics, Manners (Chen & Chung, 1994). Thus, the purpose of education is to help people develop an ideal personality. Through this educational system, virtues with regard to one's role in life are enculturated.
Confucianism has influenced positively the Chinese-influenced societies in that the people are still highly motivated towards the acquisition of good education, including degrees and diplomas, because according to Confucianism education is much more important Quality for a leader than technical competence or professional expertise, and in that education itself is an essential component of virtues (Chan, 1999).
Some examples of old Chinese proverbs are, “If you are thinking a year ahead, sow seed. If you are thinking a decade ahead, plant a tree. If you are thinking a century ahead, educate the people.” Or, “By sowing a seed once, you will harvest once. By planting a tree, you will harvest ten fold. By educating the people, you will harvest forever,” These examples demonstrate the importance of education in Confucian culture (Martinsons & Martinsons, 1996).
Support for Education
The Parents in Confucian culture have the time and enthusiasm to assist their children with their studies. Among the parents the level of support within the home for homework activities and cooperation between teachers and parents to match home environment with children’s strong learning style are very high (e.g., Hong and Lee, 1999). Asian or Asian American parents place high values on school achievement (e.g., Lin & Fu, 1900), compared to European-American parents, and also provide more support for homework activities (e.g., Constantino, Liming, & Faltis, 1995; Peng & Wright, 1994; Whipple, 1998; recited in Hong & Lee, 1999). In Asia, informed parental involvement in schoolwork has been shown to contribute to school success. Among most Koreans, family support for academic achievement is unconditional, compared to variable support for Americans (Wollam, 1992).
In Asia, parents engage students in learning and support their schools. This is informally known as the "education ethic", which receives special emphasis in early childhood (Haynes & Chalker, 1998; Henderson, Marx, & Kim, 1999; Haynes & Chalker, 1997). Since children are still the center of their parents' interests and because society places such a high value on education, parents are willing to put almost all their resources toward their children's education, including money, time and energy. Parents prepare their preschool children to accept authority and work diligently (Haynes & Chalker, 1998). Historically, mothers have been intensely involved in their children's learning. They attend their children's school to observe their child's work habits (Haynes & Chalker, 1997). There are still very few employed mothers in Korea and Japan. They have the time, inclination, and power to require that their children succeed in school. (Sorensen, 1994). Parents are frugal in conspicuous consumption but very generous in paying for tutors or classes after school. They are also partners in motivating study practices. It is common for Asian parents to sit with children during a scheduled daily homework period (Yao & Kierstead, 1984; Henderson, Marx, & Kim, 1999; Kim, 1993).
Emphasis on education has contributed to the economic growth of the Confucian Societies. Virtues attributed to the economic growth of the Asian Five Dragons, including Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, Korea, and Taiwan, are skill acquisition, hard work, moderation, patience, and perseverance besides emphasis on education (Chen & Chung, 1994).
However, even though enthusiasm for education was conducive for rapid recovery from poverty, it has brought about several negative consequences. The negative impacts are that the extreme competition for acceptance into prestigious universities results in many psychological and emotional problems (e.g., high levels of stress, anxiety: Sung, Lubin, & Yi, 1992; depression: Crittenden, Fugita, Bae, Lamug, & Lin, 1992; cigarette smoking for relief: Juon, Shin, & Nam, 1995; suicide: Sung, Lubin, & Yi, 1992; Wollam, 1992).
The importance of Early Childhood Education deemphasizes Creativity
Especially critical to educational achievement is the emphasis placed on the early, impressionable years by concerned mothers of young scholars. In Korea, literacy has been traditionally taught through repetition and memorization (Lee & Schallert, 1997; Lee, Park, & Kim, 2000). This practice is supported by most parents (Lee, Park, & Kim, 2000). Most children in Confucian cultures begin their education from such a young age, sometimes at only 2 years old, many of them able to read and write before they begin formal schooling (e.g., Chan, 1999). However, the use of worksheets is widespread, focusing only on exercises to teach letter names, letter sounds, picture-word correspondence, and writing order, without focusing on reading comprehension (Lee, Park, & Kim, 2000). Further, rote and repetitive learning, learning in a mechanical way without thought or meaning, has been developed by Confucianism to the extent that the students in Confucian culture are considered as the lack of abstract thinking, constraints on behavior caused by face, the over-emphasis on concrete examples, and lack of originality and creativity (e.g., Chan, 1999). Torrance (1964) was concerned that one of most influential inhibitors to creativity during early childhood are premature attempts to eliminate fantasy.
Rote-learning and Memorization inhibit Creativity
After they begin schooling, in order to excel academically, students are asked to repeat, memorize and remember the textbook information for monthly exams, commonly referred to as "exam hell" both in Japan and Korea (Wollam, 1992; Foster, 1973). The society is based on an examination system. It can be said that the goal of schooling is to prepare students to pass the examinations (Joo & Grow-Maienza, 1997). Exclusive reliance on standardized testing for educational assessment also forces administrators and teachers to emphasize rote learning and memorization, and ultimately, this prevalence of rote learning, memorization, and drills markedly inhibit creativity (Lee & Schallert, 1997; Kim, 1999; Jeon, 2000),.
Belief in Hard-work devalue on Play
Related to the emphasis of education, Asian educational philosophy teaches that a strong work ethic and devotion to learning are ultimately more conducive to achievement than an inherently gifted mind. Asian parents believe that good grades come from hard work, effort, diligence, endurance, perseverance, and persistence (Haynes & Chalker, 1998; Park & Kim, 1998). In Japan, it is common belief that anyone can achieve success, all that is necessary is for one to persist with utmost diligence, and almost anything can be accomplished. This cultural phenomenon of Ganbare (persistence), which is widely and spontaneously used by Japanese society at all levels. Kantrowitz and Takayam indicated that adults in Japan tell children if they work hard at anything they do, they can succeed at almost anything. The adults even provided support in situations that were beyond anyone’s control, for example, telling sick children to persist and get well (Taylor et al. 1996). Asian parents emphasize the importance of hard work to academic success, whereas American parents attribute academic success to differences in native ability. Japanese people believe that the best predictor of later success is "receptive diligence", but, in America the best predictors are curiosity and originality (Henderson, Marx, & Kim, 1999).
The Confucianism for education has been reinforced by the competition for places in a crowded educational environment. Asian students continue their studies after regular school hours by enrolling in a private "cram school," where elementary school students receive instruction in the arts while older students receive additional preparation for competitive high school entrance exams (Haynes & Chalker, 1997). After completing homework, many eventually spend up to 16 hours a day on school-related work (Haynes & Chalker, 1998). Therefore, from early childhood the students do not have time to play. In addition, the parents do not consider childhood as a period for play, and they force children so early into a formal educational structure. Thus, there is no room for creativity, or for accepting childhood as a time for playing or having fun (e.g., Rudowicz and Hui, 1996b; Fielding, 1997).
However, some researchers (e.g., Van Hoorn et al., 1993) suggested that play can be viewed as the cornerstone of imagination, play can help a child adapt to a changing modern world, through a valuing of curiosity, and the exploration of alternative situations, and play ultimately can lead a child to creativity (Richards, 1996). Another studies (Fielding, 1983) concluded that social pressures such as the work-play dichotomy limit the development and expression of creativity (Fielding, 1997). According to Vygotskian theory (1984), the limited value placed on play can depress their creativity. Some studies study showed that Asian students are less creative than Americans (e.g., Bond, 1992; Fielding, 1997).
2) Creativity and the Second Principle of Confucianism: the
Family System
Yes man is the best
The second principle of Confucianism is the family system. Confucian teachings consider "family" as the prototypical organization. Confucianism is like a social bond that fixes family members in the network of their hierarchical relationships. Furthermore, concepts such as filial piety, obedience, and loyalty practiced in the family are transferred to social organizations in which customs of disciplined subordination and acceptance of authority are cultivated.
This sense of the family structure that is applied to social organizations is one of the main reasons for the economic success of the Asian Five Dragons (Chen & Chung, 1994). For example, Confucian philosophy, which encouraged duty to the nation and to society as a whole, made it easier for South Koreans to accept the oppression for the sake of economic development. With the extension of the emphasis on filial piety to parents to obligation to society, Confucianism also encouraged workers to make a lifelong commitment to their jobs (Chung, 1994).
However, Overemphasis on filial piety and obedience leads students to avoid their original and creative thinking and accept their parents’ or elders’ conventional thinking, which inhibits creativity.
3) Creativity and the Third Principle of Confucianism: the
Hierarchical Social Relationships
The third principle of Confucianism is hierarchical relationships. Human relationships should be regulated by the Five Codes of Ethics, which is based on the five basic relationships: ruler/subject, father/son, husband/wife, older brother/younger brother, and between friends. These relationships are assumed to be unequal and complementary (Chen & Chung, 1994).
Confucian culture has a history of being a rigid, age-hierarchical society, in which age is always a mark of personal prestige and social authority. A positive aspect of the hierarchical code is the respectful treatment accorded to elders. The older generation can exercise discipline and control over the young (Park, 1993).
However, the principle of the hierarchical social relationships has brought about several negative consequences to creativity due to the inequality between men and women, strict parenting, and silent classrooms.
(1) Inequality Between Men and Women
Hierarchy ingrains in people to limit their aspirations because of their place in the social structure. Hierarchy also inflicts upon its subjects, notably women, a suffocating rigidity and a system of inequitable obligations, thus hindering human potential. The Confucian bias against women dictates an inequitable status for women, forcing them into a submissive role as a servant to their husbands’ family and a child producer to the husband (Park & Kim, 1998; Chung, 1994). According to Confucianism, all women are to be obedient. The obedience of women is customary to her parents in childhood, to her husband in marriage, and to her son in old age (Chung, 1994; Johnsrud, 1995).
The value systems and virtues of sexual division and patriarchy are reproduced in the overall school curricula. Male dominance emphasizes the development of leadership and skills for male students but encourages females to be obedient. (Chung, 1994). Educating women has long been opposed by Confucianism Higher educational levels for women are often regarded as a means of increasing their value as potential wives (Chung, 1994). In addition to working, a woman must still attend to her domestic duties, an exhausting proposition that most women find difficult to accept (Johnsrud, 1995). Gifted females have not achieved to their potential, and academic women's professional careers are limited, because of the expectations of their roles as wives, mothers and daughters-in-law (Cho, 1997; Johnsrud, 1995). On the other side, Korean businesses place too much emphasis on a woman's physical appearances rather than ability in hiring practices (Cho, 2000).
In the last several decades a subtle and progressive change in attitudes regarding the role of females in the household has taken place in Korea, leading to a higher level of labor force participation (Kim, 1990). However, devotion to Confucian principles has led to a lack of consciousness by women who are either unaware of an alternate mode of behavior or consider any other lifestyle inappropriate. They live in a culture where they have neither the education nor the compulsion to question the status quo.
However, some studies (e.g., Fielding, 1983) concluded that social pressures such as gender roles and expectations limit the development and expression of creativity (Fielding, 1997). Another studies (e.g., Jellen & Urban, 1986) found that some environmental conditions such as, sexual bias, organizational structure, and sociocultural stratifications can hinder creative potential. And another researcher (Eriksson, 1989) claimed that it is necessary to overcome inhibitions to creativity such as internal barriers, which are limiting ways of viewing the world, stereotypes, and rash thinking, and to overcome external blocks, which are the environmental conditions that prescribe ways of thinking and a judgemental atmosphere (Mellou, 1996).
(2) Strict Parenting
Asian parenting practices are moderately warm but very restrictive in what is acceptable behavior (e.g., Bond, 1992 ). In the home the expectation of respect for the authority of elders is critical. Children have to accept all advice and demands from parents without questioning. Parents are authoritative figures and enforce obedience and submissiveness from their children. Gardner (1989) indicated that Chinese child rearing is like following a chapter in Pavlov, B.F.Skinner, or J.B.Watson. Children are shown what to do and are expected to follow suit. There is one correct way to do things that is to be shown by an adult. Therefore, children develop a passive acceptance of knowledge, and a tendency to view things uncritically and to avoid exploration. Finally, they become convergent thinkers (Fielding, 1997). Asian parents sometimes physically punish their children in order to discipline them. Use of punishment to control children's misbehavior is one of the most distinct facts between Eastern and Western customs of child rearing (Englehart & Hale, 1990).
Parents' communication style towards children is one way, directive, vague, and rigid. This kind of communication can hinder children's creativity. (e.g., Chung, 1993). Tegaco et al. (1989) recommended that adults should provide a psychologically safe environment, and children need freedom and security in order to explore and be creative (Runco & Nemiro, 1994). Some researchers (e.g., Albert, 1996) found that those families that have more creativity are usually more complex, varied, and expressive than the others (Albert, 1994b, 1994c). Another researchers have identified what can be called a dead period between the ages of nine and twelve is within signs of early creativity drop out of sight, that is a time when conventional behavior is most stressed (Albert, 1996). Children learn, and as they approach adolescence, their concepts look more and more like adults’ concepts, and more and more like each other’s, thus concepts increasingly serve a social and cultural function (vygotsky, 1986; Richards, 1996)
(3) Silent Classrooms
The schooling experience is a continuation of parenting practices for the children in Confucian culture (Fielding, 1997). After children begin their formal school years, the narrowing of their minds intensifies. Compared to children in the U.S. classrooms, in Asian classrooms children talk less and are less frequently urged to participate in larger class activities (e.g., French & Song, 1998). A tradition based on a hierarchical society, teacher-centered, and total class instruction (Bathory et al., 1992) commits them to listening without speaking to teachers and adults (Fielding, 1997). They are supposed to respect hierarchical relationships between teachers and students so that students accept the information from teachers readily, and rarely express their opinions or question teachers in the classroom, leading to passive and compliant classroom behaviors of students (Chan, 1999). The Confucian trait shows respect for their teachers and elders, a reflection of the traditional values that great scholarly works are memorized and repeated, and schooling rewards it (Fielding, 1997). Subordinates are expected to follow without questioning, the decisions of their superiors. Thus, rote learning is consistent with Confucian values. It fits the traditional socio-economic environment and is fundamental to the written Chinese language (Martinsons & Martinsons, 1996). It is based on absolute respect for those teaching and passive subordination by those being taught. Students are expected to assimilate knowledge from their teachers, without questioning it. From preschool to university they learn by parroting, recitation, rote learning, memorization, and reproduction (Fielding, 1997). In Confucian culture, neither a teacher nor a student should be made to lose face (Park & Kim, 1999; Yook & Albert, 1998). Teachers are highly respected and never contradicted. Students are not supposed to question teachers or challenge their statements and remaining silent demonstrates their respect toward teachers (Fielding, 1997). Thus, students expect the teacher to initiate communication, and they speak only when asked to by the teacher. Even if the instructor had said something the student did not understand, they viewed it as relatively inappropriate to interrupt the instructor (e.g., Yook & Albert, 1998). Thus, they are prohibited the opportunity to argue, discuss, and suggest, all enriching activities which can strengthen the brain's ability to assimilate more complex thought. The students have difficulties when they are asked to apply their knowledge to a specific situation (e.g., Martinsons & Martinsons, 1996)
From my personal experience as a teacher employed under the hierarchical school organization, this limits the flexibility teachers should be free to exercise within their classrooms. In Korea, because of this hierarchical rigidity under certain circumstances, children are willing to accept the commands of peer authorities and peers who do not hold positions in the school (Kim, 1998). The students are not placed in a group-learning situation, where discussion with their peers can foster a sense of interactive learning impossible to achieve in a teacher-centered environment. Instructors are the result of this type of educational atmosphere, prevented from the opportunity to think critically or imaginatively in the classroom, and, in a perpetual cycle, eventually become teachers just like those by whom they were taught.
Often families and schools share a common emphasis on precise and clear thinking and on well-organized learning skills. They emphasize working on well-defined problems with clean results and getting good grades that can be compared to others. With this dynamic in action, little creativity is seen in schools or during adolescence (Albert, 1996). Many researchers concluded that little creativity or innovation is cultivated in the interactions between teachers and students in Confucian cultures (e.g., Yee & Brivins; Martinsons & Martinsons, 1996). It is a general trend that learner-centered instruction has had positive effects on student achievement (Morgan, 1992). And the teachers’ and parents’ authoritative and dictatorial position inhibit the development of critical thinking of children. They concluded that this system only breeds conformity, the reproduction of knowledge and images in art, and a lack lf independence and creativity (Fielding, 1997). Another studies (Fielding, 1983) also found that social pressures such as sanctions against questioning and exploration limit the development and expression of creativity (Fielding, 1997). Many researchers (e.g., Ryhammar et al., 1996) found that creative activity within the organization is encouraged by teachers’ experiencing high degree of freedom and debate, by having an open structure and being characterized by diversity, but discouraged by high degree of emotional tension and a lack of openness in teachers’ contact with one another (Ryhammar & Brolin, 1999).
Due to bureaucratic obstacles the lack of incentives for creativity or innovation and assorted logistics problems, few school system have adopted non-traditional classroom approaches (e.g., Martinsons & Martinsons, 1996). Some studies (e.g., Bottrill, 1996) showed that children’s freedom to ask questions, to take their own course of action, and to evaluate their work depended on the culture of the classroom. The differences are associated with children’s development and with the cultural environment of the school (Bottrill, 1996). Another researchers (e.g., Brooking, 1995) suggest violating expectations in teaching for creativity to occur. They claim that students are challenged to risk asking difficult questions in a society that honors easy answers, and that risky questions open students to criticism, but teachers should provide their own attitudes as safety nets and their classrooms as laboratories for experimentation (Brooking, 1995). There are another suggestions that various experimentation should be used for students’ creativity to occur. For example, some studies show that non-traditional teaching methods could support students to use more diverse learning method and to make up more creative activities than teaching with traditional methods (e.g., Auh and Walker, 1999). Moran et al. (1983a) found that preschoolers showed a larger percentage (60.1%) of original responses than do children who are older. This may mean that a U-shaped developmental curve, which could be attributed to socialization processes such as, schooling (Mellou, 1995). Runco (1994) concluded that optimal expertise can be conceptualized as having the necessary knowledge base, while retaining the flexibility and sensitivity which is necessary for creativity. Excessive educational experience leads to the acceptance of traditional viewpoints, and this can stifle creativity. Simonton concluded that the optimal level of education for scientists and inventors was a few years of graduate work but not an earned doctorate (Runco & Nemiro, 1994).
4) Creativity and the Fourth Principle of Confucianism:
Benevolence
The last principle of Confucianism is benevolence. Benevolence includes the traits such as, self-restraint and self-discipline to oneself, filial piety to parents, brotherly love to elders, and loyalty, personal duty, and positive interpersonal behaviors to society (Chen & Chung, 1994). This principle of benevolence has also brought about several negative consequences to creativity due to the suppression of emotion, minimization of verbal interaction, and conformism.
(1) Suppression of Emotion
One of the guiding principles for human relationships in Confucianism is self-control of emotional expressions in all human relationships including the husband / wife relationship and parents / children relationship. Affectionate expression to loved ones is considered inappropriate and must be internalized to conform to collectivist ideals (Yi, 1993). This cultural value denies the people the natural freedom of expression and individuality and sentences them to a life of duty and monotony. It is believed that one reason many Korean secondary school students suffer from stress is because of the suppression of emotional expression (Sung, Lubin, & Yi, 1992).
According to Psychodynamic approaches, suppression of emotional expression can inhibit creativity. All ego defenses, with the possible exceptions of intellectualization and sublimation, defend through distorting, repressing, and depersonalizing one’s experience, thus, it is easy to see how they resist and often corrupt the development and subsequent exercise of creative behavior (MacKinnon, 1978; Smith and Carlsson, 1990; Vaillant, 1977). The earlier in development the defenses function, the more likely they are to block, distort, or inhibit a child from acquiring the personal orientation and skills needed to become creative. Thus, the cognitive goal of ego defenses and creativity is similar- to reduce discontinuities, gaps, and high degrees of novelty to the point where they become sensible, manageable, and predictable. But, the difference between ego defenses and creativity is their use of information. Whereas ego defenses distort, repress, and close off many sources of information inside and around the individual, creativity lives on information (Albert, 1996). Another research (e.g., Lytton, 1971) showed that the expression of feelings, impulses, and fantasies enhance young children’s creativity (Mellou, 1996).
(2) Minimization of Verbal Interaction
Confucianism restricts verbal interactions, especially for male. Being a talkative man is considered as inappropriate. Some studies (e.g., Bond, 1992) found that the parents discourage their children’s exploratory activity and showing or telling about their surroundings. And the studies indicated that a minimization of verbal interaction account for the verbal inhibition of the people in Confucian culture outside their family and lower performance in verbal tests of intelligence (e.g., Fielding, 1997).
According to Vygotskian (1992a) socio-cognitive theory, imagination and creative thinking abilities are developed through social interaction, and the path to creative thinking begins in play and reaches maturity under the influence of word-based concepts and rational thinking capacities. Therefore, it is concluded that the de-emphasis on verbal interaction and learning can depress creativity (Fielding, 1997).
(3) Conformism
Researchers have reported an association between collectivism and social conformity (Crittenden, Fugita, Bae, Lamug, & Lin, 1992; Martinsons & Martinsons, 1996). In Western societies, liberal moral-political values emphasize individuals' rights and self-determination. In contrast, Confucianism in East Asia emphasizes the collective good and harmony, along with self-cultivation and self-regulation (Park & Kim, 1999). Confucianism emphasizes conformism and act predictably within a situational context. Adherence to group interests for the sake of achieving harmony is often justified at the expense of individual (Chung, 1994). Students seek to avoid appearing different from others, individuals learn to restrain themselves in order to maintain group harmony, and the fear of making a mistake or embarrassment keeps many students silent. It is related to their propensity for compromise and conflict avoidance (Martinsons & Martinsons, 1996). Under Confucianism, slow speakers are perceived as more competent than fast speakers, whereas in the U.S., the opposite appraisal results (Lee & Boster, 1992). Moreover, Confucian ideals consider the emphasis on individual rights and creativity as secondary (Park & Kim, 1998).
However, some studies (e.g., Fielding, 1983) found that social pressures such as peer conformity, and avoidance of appearing ‘too different’ or eccentric limit the development and expression of creativity (Fielding, 1997). Another researchers (e.g., Cummings, 1994) claimed that conformity and uniformity conflicts with the creativity and initiative that required in scientific and technical work. And Rudowicz and Hui (1996) indicated that if the social systems are rigid, defensive and discourage independence and novelty, new ideas face difficulties in being recognized as creative
(Fielding, 1997). Vince-Bakonyi (1969) found that creative children’s characteristics are initiative, independence, free play of imagination, joy in absorption, and nonconformity (Moustakas, 1967). Starkweather (1971) found that among pre-kindergarten children those who scored high in flexibility, a criterion of creativity, scored low in social relations (Mellou, 1995). Creative people are open to new information, are able to synthesize, and are flexible (Goldstein & Blackman, 1978), and are low in dogmatism, that is, stating things in an authoritative way (Mellou, 1995).
The people in Confucian culture have a fear of losing face (dignity, prestige, and self-respect) among peers. This is called as self-effacement and is linked it to the Confucian value of modest behavior. Also, modest behavior is a highly respected virtue. Thus, in Confucian culture they are not supposed to be narcissistic (Martinsons & Martinsons, 1996). However, narcissism is related to creativity. Solomon (1985) found that normal narcissism is defined as mature, positive self-esteem, self-concept, self-feeling or self-regard, that is, highly creative people have a greater degree of normal narcissism than less creative people (Mellou, 1995).
C. Conformism & Negative Conception of Creativity
There is another issue of creativity related to Conformism. By the time of Aristotle, the view that is related to madness appeared (Albert & Runco, 1999), and reappeared during the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth centuries (Albert & Runco, 1999). After historical review Neihart (1998) concluded that creativity is associated with madness, especially within the subpopulation of writers, poets, and visual artists for example, Charles Dickens, Ernest Hemingway, Henry James, Honore De Balzac, Robert Burns, Lord Byron, Emily Dickinson, T.S. Eliot, Victor Hugo, John Keats, Edgar Allan Poe, Leo Tolstoy, Tennessee Williams, Virginia Woolf, Emile Zola, Michelangelo, Vincent Van Gogh (Recited in Neihart, 1998).
More creatively gifted people suffer from certain mental disorders than is found in the general population (Andreasen, 1988; Jamison, 1989; 1993; Richards, 1989), and higher suicide rates appear among prominent creative people than among the norm (Neihart, 1998). Barron and associates (Barron, 1969) found high MMPI psychopathology scores for eminent creators. It was ascribed in part to greater psychological openness. Eminent writers also showed a high level of overinclusive conceptualization. But, creators also showed high levels of ego strength and advantages in abstract and cohesive thinking (Andreasen and powers, 1974; Richards, 1994; Richards, 1996). There are some researchers including Eysenck (1983), who argued that creativity is related to schizophrenia (Getzels & Jackson, 1962; Torrance, 1962; Hudson, 1966; Barron, 1969). Torrance and Hall (1980) proposed that creative people integrate into their personalities many polar opposites, that is, highly creative people are more masculine and more feminine, more conforming and more nonconforming, more independent and more dependent, and more serious and more playful, more timid and more bold, more certain more uncertain, and more receptive and more self-acting than their less creative peers (Mellou, 1995).
Therefore, educators need to understand and accept that the creative process often causes anxiety that may hinder production (Neihart, 1998). But, Getzels and Jackson (1962) found that teachers preferred students who were higher IQ and lower creativity to those of higher creativity and lower IQ (Richards, 1996).
b. Alcohol & Creativity
There is a conception that a positive correlation prevails between the intake of alcohol and creativity. The phases of creativity as described by Wallas as early as 1926 (Wallas, 1926/ 1970) were preparation (gather experience and ideas), incubation (maturing phase), illumination (creation of insights and inspiration), verification (the execution, the writing), and restitution (the recovery-phase). The studies of alcohol and creativity found that a moderate alcohol intoxication (1.0ml of 100% alcohol/kg body weight) makes the preparation phase more difficult (Gustafson & Norlander, 1994), the incubation easier through the effects of more incubations and increased originality (Gustafson & Norlander, 1996), decreases flexibility but increases the originality during illumination (Gustafson & Norlander, 1998), complicates the verification phase (Gustafson & Norlander, 1997) and facilitates restitution (Gustafson & Norlander, 1995). These results are consistent with a biographical study of sixty Finnish authors (Koski-Ja’nnis, 1985), which indicates that excessive use of alcohol occurs mostly during the incubation and restitution phases (Norlander, 1999).
Taken all study (Gustafson & Norlander, 1994; Gustafson, 1991; Gustafson & Norlander, 1995; Koski-Jannes, 1985, Norlander, 1995; Risberg, 1994; Wendt et al., 1994; Ingvar et al., 1995; Hajcak, 1976) of the relationship between alcohol and creativity it can be concluded that a moderate intake of alcohol can obstruct secondary phases of creativity, such as, preparation, illumination, verification, but can facilitate primary phases such as, incubation, restitution (Gustafson, 1996).
Ironically, consistent with those conclusions above, in Confucian background culture there has been a notion that creative persons are abnormal even without influence of the research above. Lim and Plucker (2001) found that although Korean conceptions of creativity are similar to Western conceptions, Koreans emphasize negative behaviors and personality characteristics such as, independence and deviance to a great degree, for instance, creative persons are indifferent to other’s opinions, do not pay attention to other’s evaluation, make conflicts when working in groups, and are rude and headstrong. These results are consistent with those in previous studies across several Chinese cultural contexts (Chan & Chang, 1999; Rudowicz & Hui, 1997; Rudowicz & Yue, 2000). The results that people in Confucian culture see creativity as having little relationship with the social responsibility can be a critical obstacle to creative activity, because in this culture the social responsibility or conformity is a substantial value (Lim & Plucker, 2001).
The Impact of Parents’ Confucian Ideas on Their Child’s Creativity
I am interested in the influence of cultural factors on creativity within the confluence approaches. Confucian culture makes it difficult for people to be creative. I argued how Confucian ideas discourage creativity based on the four principles of Confucianism.
The first principle, the emphasis on education has become a major reason why Asian countries are well known for their educational enthusiasm, and most children start their academic work at such an early age, but the way they study, such as rote learning, memorization, and repetition can inhibit their creativity. Thus, we call for educational emphasis on flexibility and new teaching methods, which encourage students' critical thinking, logical reasoning, and the use of inquiry skills and creative approaches to problem solving (e.g., Wollam, 1992)
And also parents depress their child’s creativity through devaluating of play and forcing the children to eliminate fantasy and imagination during their early childhood. Many parents who compel their child to study do not recognize that improving the educational environment for their child’s cognitive development is more substantial than trying to implant information into their child’s brain as early as possible.
The second principle, family system, overemphasizes filial piety and obedience, leading to conventional thinking that can stifle children’s creativity.
The third principle, hierarchical social relationships, are based on the unequal and complementary relationships even between friends, which account for the inequality between men and women, strict parenting, and silent classrooms. Hierarchical society prohibits students from thinking critically or disagreeing with their teachers’ opinion. All children are supposed to listen not to talk. Much research has proven that these social stratifications can block children’s creativity. ). To change the mechanistic, bureaucratic organizational structure, the formal system of political and administrative reality should be changed into a more decentralized natural or open system (Lee, 1999).
The final principle, benevolence, emphasizes self-restrain and self-discipline to oneself and positive interpersonal behaviors to society, which cause suppression of emotion and minimization of verbal interaction. Emotional and verbal expression must be internalized to conform to collectivist ideals in Confucian culture. Parents are not aware of the implication and benefits of the role of verbal or emotional interaction for children. Confucianism reveres collectivism, conformity, and uniformity too much to consider individual rights and creativity as primary. Conformism does not allow people to be different from other people, and conflicts with Narcissism, leading to a low self-conceptualization.
Therefore, it can be concluded that Confucian ideals can deter children’s development and expression of creativity. Further, the conception of creativity in Confucian culture also makes it more difficult to encourage creative activity. Research shows that madness and alcoholism are related to creativity. Ironically, in Confucian culture there has been a concept of creativity that creative persons are abnormal. The fact that they see creativity as having little relationship with the social responsibility is a crucial hindrance to creative activity, because their conception of creativity disaccords with conformism, an essential value of benevolence.
Ultimately, my research interest is the impact of parents’ Confucian ideas on their child’s creativity. I want to verify if the conclusion above is consistent with my research. I will measure parents’ Confucian ideas by using a test that is consisted of well-known Korean proverbs. And then, I will compare the degree of Confucian ideas of the parents with their child’s score of creativity that will be measured by the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking.
Creativity is increasingly discussed as an essential response to a radically changing world that needs independent thinkers who can work to identify problems and to find solutions. The need for robot-like workers who perform repetitive tasks in a hierarchical system has declined along with the dying industrial age (Brooking, 1995).
In any psychology of creativity, not only individual influences but also environmental influences must be essential. Ryhammar & Brolin claim that one of the reasons for the increasing interest in environmental factors can be the fact that it is easier to change the social environment than to change individual traits and abilities (Ryhammar & Brolin, 1999). I hope that this connotation is veritable, and that the social environment for the development of children’s creativity can be progressed through education especially, eventually through teacher and parent education.
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